Professional Nursing Synthesis Portfolio

In Appendix __ and ___ (Case studies and Rhabdomyisis), I have been able to exhibit   critical thinking. I have been able to undertake analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of data gathered from observation, experience, reflection, or communication as a guide to belief or action. I have also been able to acquire substantial clinical reasoning which entails a capacity to remember facts, organize them in a meaningful whole, and then apply the information in a clinical patient care situation. As a nurse, I can make use of reasoning to help in formulating principles or guidelines as a basis for my nursing practice judgment decisions. II. Decision Making Skills In Appendix ___ (Ethical Dilemma), I have significantly enhanced my decision making skills. As a novice, I acquire clinical judgment and skill over time. Knowledge is refined through actual clinical experience; this moves me from a rule-based, context-free stage to a more analytical, logical and intentional pattern of thinking. To effectively provide a conducive learning environment, I have been exposed to venues for examining and developing my problem solving and reasoning skills towards making clinical judgments. These venues transpire through numerous learning experiences, one of which are ethical dilemmas. III. Nursing Care and Management of Clients In Appendices __ and ___ (Case studies and Mariners Harbor project), I have effectively enhanced my skills in nursing care and management of clients. These experiences can help me in developing the learner from the novice phase to being an advanced beginner in nursing. Experiences such as this enable the formation of meaningful related information on the basis of what I have learned in the classroom. There is an expectation that with more experience, I can move from the level of advanced beginner to the level of competence by program completion. Clinical judgment is defined as nursing decisions about which areas to assess, analyzing health data, prioritizing which task to do, and who should carry it out. For clinical judgment to be assessed as sound, it should be arrived at using critical thinking and logical reasoning, that will enable the deduction of valid conclusions, and the decisions that may be borne from these. IV. Effective Communication, Collaboration and Negotiation In Appendix ___ (Visiting hours in the ICU), I have been able to appreciate the importance of working with multidisciplinary professionals. I realized that synergy and collaboration are important for the ultimate welfare of the patient. This set-up also allows for his holistic healing. V.   Professional values and behaviors In Appendix __ (Nursing Philosophy), I was able to hone my professional values and behaviors. I believe that while technical competence is a core requisite to becoming a successful nurse practitioner, being values and ethics driven are equally important. In the absence of policies or concrete guiding principles, values are the only guideposts on which decisions may be hinged or anchored against. I am thankful that I was taught ethics and have also had the opportunity to make ethical decisions on the basis of such knowledge. I realized that deciding with a clean conscience makes for competent and sound nursing practice, which substantially determines nursing effectiveness. VI.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Teaching and Learning My experience in being a nurse educator has further been honed through Appendix __ (Mariners Harbor Outreach) where I was able to instruct indigents and minority patients about palliative care. I felt that this has brought me a step closer to my aspiration of being a nurse educator. As a future nurse educator / coach, I would like to conduct research projects, participate in professional associations and interact with other nursing academics and practitioners. I would also continue to practice my profession in the clinical setting. This is an effective tool in ensuring that I continue to be clinically competent as I train future nurses. VII.     Research Through integrated literature reviews and critiques (Appendix __ and ___), I have been able to hone my research skills. I have learned how to critically analyze both quantitative and qualitative data to be able to draw meaningful conclusions from them. These exercises on critical thinking and analysis have forged the theoretical foundation of my nursing practice, which is applied and honed in the clinical setting. These have taught me how to read and understand statistics, as well as data drawn from qualitative methods. Critiques have also allowed me to point out the limitations of research studies and ascertain the validity of research results. VIII.  Ã‚   Leadership Through Appendix __ (Nursing Philosophy paper), I have been able to strengthen my resolve in being a transformational leader-nurse. I have learned that being a charismatic or transformational leader entails articulate a realistic vision of the future that can be shared, stimulate subordinates intellectually, and pay attention to the differences among the subordinates. By defining the need for change, creating new visions, and mobilizing commitment to these visions, leaders can ultimately transform organizations. In effect, the ultimate goal was to make a real dent in the lives of people that I come in contact with by helping them authentically. IX.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Management In Appendices ___ and ___ (Nursing change paper/ Visiting hours paper), I have come to appreciate the importance of working within a multidisciplinary setting. Such appreciation has also helped me appreciate diversity and synergy in working with other professionals. X.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lifelong learning and professional career development In Appendices __ and ___ (Alziheimers project/ Does advanced practice†¦ nursing paper), I have broadened my career horizons. Through these, I have manifested how I have progressed in the practice and have also been able to open new doors for learning and for sharing these wins with my colleagues.

Writing and Pepperoni Pizza Lovers

[pic]Essay #5: Division/Classification ASSIGNMENT Write a 3-page essay classifying different types. The essay must focus on types of a specific object or person. The essay is not intended to be an inventory of descriptions, but rather a fun analysis that leads to an overall conclusion about what you discovered in the details of each type. Requirements †¢ 3 pages Introduction (creative hook/lead and use Adios â€Å"Encircling† to get into the body of the essay—a 2-paragraph introduction is acceptable) †¢ Support Paragraphs (effective use of all: â€Å"Flow†, â€Å"Pause†, â€Å"Time Warping†, â€Å"Splitting the Second,† â€Å"Transitioning†) †¢ Conclusion (use a creative conclusion combo of your choice) †¢ Use transition words/expressions. †¢ Use varied sentence structure that demonstrates knowledge of correct punctuation. †¢ Avoid 2nd person point of view (you), contractions, and repetition. Avoid use of cliche expressions and overused words (i. e. things, nice, beautiful, however). †¢ Limit use of to be verb to no more that 4 times in the essay. †¢ Clear thesis statement †¢ Creative Title Step One (5 points): Due October 26, 2012, by midnight via email ([email  protected] com) Choose a topic and get approval from the instructor. Some examples of people include: people in an airplane, people in a waiting room, people at a specific party, types of parents, types of drivers, types of bosses, types of sneezers, types of snorers.Some examples of objects include: types of pizzas (stick to one particular kind like all types of pepperoni pizzas), types of other foods, types of couches, types of jeans, types of candy (chocolate bars, after dinner mints, etc†¦). You are not limited to these ideas; however, be prepared to think of another idea if the first one should not be approved. Therefore, check your email frequently for a response. When considering your topic, reme mber to choose something that will allow you to enjoy writing about it and will allow you to use all our stylistic tools effectively. Step Two (10 points): Due November 1, 2012, by midnight via email ([email  protected] com) Write a formal outline with your thesis and 3-4 main points. This must be a sentence outline, as we have already discussed in class. You will find an explanation about formal outlines on page 45 of The Brief Wadsworth Handbook. The example on page 46 of the handbook is a topic outline (not the kind you will be preparing). Follow basic outline conventions. Send your outline in the body of the email! Use the subject heading: â€Å"Essay #5 Outline†.The outline should organize the ideas that you intend to discuss in your essay. No late outlines will be accepted for credit. I will, however, comment on late outlines. All students who email me their outlines will get general commentary for improving the outline in order to result in a better paper. You may ne ed to revise the outline, so you will need to be checking your email periodically in order to make the necessary changes in time to write the paper. If you have changes to make on the outline and you do not implement them by November 3, 2012, you will receive 0 points for this assignment.Also, there will be a 1-point deduction for every time you need to revise, so get it done right the first time. You may only move on to writing the paper if I indicate so in my commentary. Follow the example below. Thesis: Pepperoni pizza lovers should not be grouped as one happy bunch of Italian-pie devotees. I. Too-conventional-to-try-anything-else pepperoni pizza lovers are one type. A. Charlie has not really acquired a taste for pepperoni pizza in order to be considered an expert. B. This person just eats pepperoni pizza because it is a standard favorite.C. This person has never really made any earth-shattering decisions in his/her life, for he/she lives in fear of being different. II The taste gratification seekers of the pepperoni pizza lover bunch are a second type. A. Gary Gratification Gurumaniac chooses pepperoni pizza merely for the flavorful spices of the thin sausage disks from Italy. B. This person generally opts for spicier food choices, so when pizza is on the menu, pepperoni satisfies Billy Taste Bud and Buddies the most. C.In general, this person spends a lifetime of seeking spice in his life: pepperoni pizza is his target at the neighborhood pizza parlor. III. The pepperoni pizza critic is a third. A. Having done extensive research in Italy, Cristoforo Critic di Italia is the expert and has earned the right to use his thumbs to signal â€Å"belissimo† or far-from-belissimo. B. As a connoisseur of pizza, he won’t be found delving in the cheesy-thin-crust-pepperoni delights of the lower class: the hut that sells a low quality version, Papa John’s sad imitation of gourmet, and oh, not the â€Å"D†one, a blasphemous attempt to produce pepperoni pizza.C. This person can only be found in gourmet get-ups that seat ten lucky guests for an evening of white table cloths, shiny silverware, a carnation in a vase, and the star of the evening, pepperoni pizza. D. The self-proclaimed pepperoni pizza expert will also be heard saying, â€Å"Only the best will do;† his superficial expertise is a disguise for his addiction to the best; otherwise, Domino’s would have been a thumbs up too. Conclusion: One’s taste for pepperoni pizza comes from one’s attitude toward life. Note: Please be aware that your first draft of the outline may not be approved. Check your email for responses. In other words, just doing it will not get you the credit–doing it correctly will. Step Three (10): Due: November 13, 2012 Write a 3-page essay in MLA format for Peer Review. Please bring a hard copy only. Keep in mind that grammar, sentence variety, clever word choice, and paragraph unity and organization, and effect ive use of Adios techniques are necessary to create an amazing piece of writing.Be careful not to create an inventory of types. Don’t forget to create an amazing title! Note: Students who do not have a complete draft of Essay #5 or do not have one at all on the day of the peer review will receive a zero for this assignment. Students who arrive after the peer review will receive a zero for this assignment. Step Four (100): Due: November 15, 2012 Make sure you do not miss an opportunity for great detail, entertaining narrative, and stylistic flair. Proofread and turn in the final draft for instructor review is due.Include your revised outline. (A 10-point deduction will be made if you do not turn in the outline and/or do not follow correct MLA format, including tampering with the margins, font size and style. ) This final draft should be something a reader will enjoy reading; this is your mission. An essay will be considered â€Å"on time† when it is turned in at the tim e all essays are collected. Turning in an essay after the collection time will be considered late, so do not plan to print during the break or arrive tardy to class.Late essays will be accepted no later than one class meeting after the original due date. The final grade of late essays, however, will be dropped one full letter grade. Step Four (100): Due: November 15, 2012 Post your Essay #5 to Turnitin. com by this date at 12:45pm (the start of class). On Writing Style†¦. Do’s: Getting up late is usually the reason for speedy vehicle vermin to cause chaos on the road. The triple-dose snoozers seem to be under the prolonged state of slumber, as they cut in front of those who steer courteously along the freeway.When the Lone Ranger low rider goes by handling his Tonto Toyota in unconventional ways, Ms. Daisy and her chauffer can only wonder, â€Å"What was that loud blur? † Road mayhem is credited to this group of freeway fiends. Watch out! Don’ts: Some drive rs are in a hurry. They cut off people on the busy road and don’t seem to care how they affect the drivers around them. They are probably in a hurry to get to work because they got up too late or had car trouble. Nevertheless, they are a threat on the road. [pic]

No need for topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 2

No need for topic - Essay Example BestBuy Company Incorporation is a multinational retailer that deals with selling of computer electronics, mobile phone products and various other appliances. Other than the retail stores, the company is also involved in the operations related to call-center and online retail transactions. In order to maintain the smooth flow of the organizational operations, requirement for strategic management frames is observed to be a vital part for BestBuy. Few examples can be cited from BestBuy, where application of strategic management has been depicted. Considering the fiscal year 2001, BestBuy Company has acquired the Magnolia Hi Fi Inc., which is a retailer of audio along with video products. In this aspect this strategic decision was undertaken in order to access upscale consumer segment. This is an example of strategic change within the domestic environment of the company (BestBuy, â€Å"About Best Buy†). In accordance with the strategic change during the fiscal year 2002, BestBuy acquired Future Shop Ltd for better prospect. Future Shop is considered as Canada’s largest retailer and has been acquired with an objective to retain the company’s brand equity and also increase its consumers’ base. Another example can be cited from the field of its operation that reflects about the initiative taken by BestBuy Company as an approach to strategic management. The US based BestBuy stores have provided the customers’ with the facilities of differentiated product categories such as computing and mobile phones, entertainment, services, consumer electronics and appliances among others. (BestBuy, â€Å"About BestBuy†). The mission statement of the BestBuy Company is identified as â€Å"Our formula is simple: we’re a growth company focused on better solving the unmet needs of our customers—and we rely on our employees to solve those puzzles.

Major Themes of the Movie (La Vita e Bella) Roberto Benigni Review

Major Themes of the (La Vita e Bella) Roberto Benigni - Movie Review Example They had a son some years later and then the World War II began. Guido, his uncle and his son Joshua were forced to go to a concentration camp on Joshua's birthday. Guido created then a fairy tale in order to keep his son from suffering. He pretended that everything was only a game and they had to score high in order to get the first prize. Even hurt and tired of working all day long carrying heavy metal pieces, he tried to keep a good mood in the presence of Joshua. His attempt to mask the reality was actually a real struggle to keep his son under control and consequently alive, since it was known that children and old people had been sent to the gas chambers. He also created situations that would put him in danger only to keep the fantasy and the safety of his son. Dora was also very brave. She is not Jewish, so her name was not in the list of those who were to be taken to the camp. However, she demanded to go to the same camp as her husband and son. Guido was aware that Dora has b een sent to the same place and tried to reach her in different manners. He made use of a loudspeaker to send her a message in the camp and also played music to her. The major proof of Guido's bravery takes place at the end of the movie. The war was coming to an end and the Nazis were in a hurry to kill as much jews as possible.

Asset Classification Policies and Procedures Essay

Asset Classification Policies and Procedures - Essay Example Asset Classification Policies and Procedures For information to be handled properly, employees are required to have a working knowledge of the categorization of information into the three provided categories. Employees should be able to categorize the information before forwarding it further. If at some point, employees are confused about properly categorizing the information, the proper course of action is to classify it as confidential while an appropriate supervisor would later review and properly classify. Public Data- As the name suggests, such data is usually open to the public and is easily available. Disclosure of such data does not put the firm in any kind of risk; however certain controls are required to be enforced on such data to prevent modification or destruction of the data by unauthorized parties; Sensitive Data- Data is classified as sensitive data when disclosures of such information publically can result in potential risk for the organization or its people. Such information may be provided to others on a discretionary basis and under the supervision of the data owner. Confidential Data – Confidential data is the most sensitive data within the organization and unauthorized disclosure of such information can result in significant risk for the firm. The highest level of security and control are applied on such information. The System Impact level will determine the impact of activities on the system on a scale of one to five with five being the most crucial impact and one having the least crucial impact.

Article Title Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Article Title - Essay Example The article reveals three separate research studies conducted to track the origins of cancer cells in the brain, gut and skin using genetic markers as labels. The studies conducted by Luis Parada and Hans Clevers on brain and gut cancers respectively used genetic labels to mark healthy adult stem cells which had the potential to develop into tumors and analyzed whether the newly formed cancer cells contained the same labels as their predecessors. In the experiment conducted by Parada on glioblastoma, the tumors also contained some unlabelled cells which had also originated from the labeled cells which relapsed following chemotherapy. However, when the labeled cells were targeted using chemotherapy the glioblastoma underwent significant shrinkage. Clevers and his team used drug-inducible genetic markers which when activated caused the cells carrying the marker to fluoresce in one of the four colors. When a second dose of the drug was injected the initially fluorescing cells gave rise to a new set of cells that fluoresced with a different color thus supporting the hypothesis that cancer stem cells give rise to new tumor cells. In the experiment involving the skin tumor conducted by Cedric Blanpain, individual tumor cells were labeled and when tracked these either gave rise to a small cell lineage before diminishing or continued to produce more cells. Thus the study provided a strong experimental evidence for the existence of cancer stem cells and further research involved relating these tracked cells with those of the putative cells which have been found from transplantation studies. The photosynthetic ability of aphids using the carotenoid pigment which they synthesize is explored in the Nature article, â€Å"Photosynthesis-like process found in insects†. Aphids and another possible creature namely the two-spotted

Trusts Law Arguments by Jones Garton and Margaret Halliwell Essay

Trusts Law Arguments by Jones Garton and Margaret Halliwell - Essay Example The articles by modern authors Jones Garton and Margaret Halliwell consider this phenomenon from a modern perspective. They refer to the most well-known cases in this field: Milroy v Lord, Re Rose, Pennington v Wayne and some others. In order to define the level of trust in perfect/imperfect gifts, it is relevant to refer to additional reading from previous years and to current sources (Substantial Change in Trust Tax Law, 2006; Diamond, 2002). A complicated nature of gift is the absence of contract basis, i. e. there is no special consideration of gift transfer (Langbein, 1995; McKendrick, 1992). Moreover, if a giver fails to complete required formal stages or has no legal title, gift may fail. Courts refer to the generally accepted motto in this kind of cases: â€Å"equity will not perfect an imperfect gift† (Langbein, 1995). Consequently, there are a lot of controversies appearing in trust cases. That’s why it is relevant to discuss a balanced nature of trust. In oth er words there is a need to consider its theoretical basis and practical implementation. A consideration about constitution of trust is a vividly discussed issue for academics and researchers, because practical implementation of trust in trusts law is rather rare. The trusts law has some specific features, which have to be discussed in detail. The most striking issue is that transfer may occur even if all formalities were not followed. Re Rose case is well-known with this regard and there is even a name for ‘Re Rose’ principle taken after the case. In this case the settlor transferred shares in a private company on behalf of certain trusts. Nevertheless the authority of the company didn’t register transfer at once and the question which had to be solved by court was when the shares were transferred. The date of settlor’s decision to transfer the shares was acclaimed to be the relevant date of transfer. This principle was discussed in other cases as well (C unningham, 1992, p. 63). Pennington v Wayne is another interesting case for discussion. In this case the concept of unconscionability appears and the court considers this concept to be a primary fact in the case discussion. This concept was taken for granted as a decisive point because not all formalities were followed in the process of gift transfer. Jones Garton’s article The articles by Garton and Halliwell present two points of view on property and securities transfer mechanism. It is relevant to note that both of these authors suggest interesting considerations about trusts law in England. Jones Garton combines the ideas on trust collected from additional sources and law cases. He speaks about constituent nature of trust. Operational mechanisms of trust are focused on the main claim that â€Å"equity will not infer a perfect trust from an imperfect gift† (Garton, 2003). The basic claim was taken from Milroy v Lord (1862) case, from more contemporary case Penningto n v Waine (2002) 1 WLR 2075. In accordance with Garton there are different principles in the rule of the ‘last act’ which establishes constitution and its application. Garton’s work impresses readers by his considerations about the ‘workings’ of trusts in Rose’s case which are express and constructive. Therefore it is clearly seen that Garton is interested in a concept of trust in imperfect gifts.

Investment plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Investment plan - Essay Example There is usually a stated value on each stock certificate called the par value. However, some stocks have no-par value. The total par value is the number of shares issued multiplied by the par value of each share and is sometimes referred to as the dedicated capital of a corporation. Shares of common stock are the fundamental ownership units of the corporation. The articles of incorporation of a new corporation must state the number of shares of common stock the corporation is authorised to issue. The board of directors of the corporation, after a vote of the shareholders, can amend the articles of incorporation to increase the number of shares authorised; there is no limit to the number of shares that can be authorised. There is no requirement that all of the authorised shares actually be issued. Although there are no legal limits to authorising shares of stock, some practical considerations may exist. Authorising a large number of shares may create concern on the part of the invest ors, because authorised shares can be issued later with the approval of the board of directors but without a vote of the shareholders. Capital surplus usually refers to amounts of directly contributed equity capital in excess of the par value. The sum of the par value, capital surplus, and accumulated retained earnings is the common equity of the firm, which is usually referred to as the firm's book value. The book value represents the amount contributed directly and indirectly to the corporation by equity investors. The conceptual structure of the corporation assumes that shareholders elect directors who in turn elect corporate officers-more generally, the management-to carry out their directives. It is the right to elect the directors of the corporation by vote that constitutes the most important control device of shareholders. Directors are elected each year at an annual meeting by a vote of the holders of a majority of share who are present and entitled to vote. A proxy is the l egal grant of authority by a shareholder to someone else to vote his or her shares. For convenience, the actual voting in large public corporations usually is done by proxy. Many companies have hundreds of thousands of shareholders. Shareholders can come to the annual meeting and vote in person, or they can transfer their right to vote to another party by proxy. The value of a share of common stock in a corporation is directly related to the general rights of shareholders. In addition to the right to vote for directors, shareholders usually have the following rights: (1) the right to share proportionally in dividends paid (2) the right to share proportionally in assets remaining after liabilities have been paid in a liquidation (3) the right to vote on matters of great importance to stockholders, such as a merger, usually decided at the annual meeting or a special meeting (4) the right to share proportionally in any new stock sold (Ross, Westerfield, and Jaffe, 1996, p. 365-369). A distinctive feature of corporations is that they issue share of stock and are authorised by law to pay dividends to the holders of those shares. Dividends paid to shareholders represent a return on the capital directly or indirectly contributed to the corporation by the shareholders. The payment of dividends is at the discretion of the board of directors. Here are

Marketing Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Marketing Principles - Essay Example As noted in the report, when intending to launch a new product, market research should be carried out first in order to establish the needs of the people. Marketing messages should be tailored in such a way that the product is presented as better than other similar products offered in the market. The message should also be designed in such a way that it can positively change the behaviour and attitude of people. Table of contents 1.0 Introduction 3 1.1 Task1 3 1.2 How Nike increases customer satisfaction 5 2.1 Task 2 6 2.2 Segmentation criteria used by Nike 7 2.3 Market targeting used by Nike 8 2.4 Consumer behaviour 9 2.5 Perception maps 9 2.6 B2B marketing strategy used by Nike 12 2.7 International marketing 13 3.0 Task 3: Nike introducing new jersey 13 3.1 Marketing mix for the new jersey 14 3.2 Place 14 3.3 Price 14 3.4 Promotion 14 3.5 Extended marketing mi 15 3.6 Conclusion 17 References 19 1.0 Introduction This case study based essay seeks to evaluate and explain the marketing concepts that can be implemented by Nike in order to operate viably. The report is divided into three sections which deal with different marketing concepts and how they can be implemented by Nike group in order for it to achieve merit/distinction criteria in its operations. The first task deals with explaining the meaning of marketing as well as carrying out a SWOT analysis for Nike. The second task is particularly concerned with explaining different marketing concepts such as positioning, targeting as well as micro and macro economic factors and how they are impacting on Nike. The third task is an individual report about designing a marketing plan for a new Nike product as well as outlining the marketing strategy that can be used to present the product to the market. The last part of the report gives recommendations that can be adopted by Nike in order to operate effectively so that it can gain a large market share. 1.1 Task I Nike Inc. uses various elements of the marketing proce ss to develop and promote their product as well as to market them so that they can satisfy the needs and wants of the customers. In order to understand how these marketing elements are utilised by Nike, it is imperative to begin by explaining the meaning of the term marketing. a. Strydom (2004, p. 2) define marketing as â€Å"a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others.† On the other hand, the Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) define marketing as â€Å"the management process that responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably.† From these two definitions, it can be seen that marketing is a managerial function that is concerned with satisfying the needs of the customers as well as the organization profitably. According to Reuters (2013), NIKE, Inc. â€Å"is engaged in the design, development and worldwide mark eting and selling of footwear, apparel, equipment, accessories and services.† No doubt Nike embraces the basic tenets of marketing in its operations in a bid to satisfy the needs of the customers profitably. The company harnesses the strategy of brand equity to gain a competitive advantage given that its products are valued and treated with great esteem by the customers since they are different from other similar products in

Compare & Contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Compare & Contrast - Essay Example Firstly, the film â€Å"The Secret Life of Grain†, represents what many filmmakers might see as an overly chauvinistic view of the world. However, it must also be understood that the culture that exists within the Maghreb is inherently patriarchal and the family associations and expectations that are represented within the film in question are not meant to cause any level of disrespect for anti-feminism. As such, the filmmaker reveals a world in which strict in gender norms determine what actions the men and the women will undertake (Scott 1). For instance, as it becomes clear that the couscous has been lost, it is the expectation that the men of the family must engage in a frantic and desperate rush to locate it. However, when their efforts fail, the gender expectation that is represented within the film is that it is ultimately the job of the women to solve the situation, re-cook the couscous, and utilize male sexual energy as a distraction for what is taking place behind th e scenes. Furthermore, the representation of class is one in which the viewer comes to the realization that the moneyed aristocracy/bureaucracy is the only mechanism through which the average societal stakeholder can hope to get ahead. As a direct result of this realization and portrayal, the protagonists of the film find it necessary to ingratiate themselves with these individuals as a means of pursuing this dream. Interestingly, the second film that will be discussed within this comparison and contrast, â€Å"All about My Mother†, represents a differential between those individuals that live within the provinces and those that live within Madrid. Furthermore, whereas it has been assumed that individuals who live in the big city are necessarily more liberal and open-minded than those who lived within the provinces, a unique understanding of class and acceptance is provided within this film; whereby the individuals who live in Madrid are

Analysis of Barclays Bank Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Barclays Bank Essay Introduction The process of restructuring the telecommunication sector truly got under way in Cameroon in June 1995, when the authorities decided thoroughly to reform network industry sectors such as water, electricity and telecommunications with a view to creating a favourable environment in which to develop their infrastructure and services and thus to satisfy increasingly exigent demand. The process took the form of liberalization, State withdrawal from the sectors concerned and the establishment of a  market structure enabling Cameroon to remain in step with the especially rapid global developments in the telecommunication sector; indeed, in spite of the investments made, the coverage rate and quality of service offered had remained largely inadequate. The process was carried out not only by defining the conditions and mechanisms liable to guarantee the sectors opening to private initiative, but also by enacting regulations and taking measures intended to enable the sector to play the decisive role incumbent on it in Cameroons economic development. Telecommunication sector reform in Cameroon is not limited to the establishment of new regulations and legislation, to the revision of the institutional framework and the establishment of an interconnection regime or to the introduction of competition. It should also comprise bringing behaviour in line with the times. One of our chief concerns is therefore also effective application of the regulations with a view to fulfilling the universal service obligation, ensuring consumer protection and providing for effective and appropriate regulation of true competition. The acquisition of the required know-how is the biggest challenge we face. The institutional players on Cameroons telecommunications scene are, as in many other African countries, of the opinion that any society that delays in jumping on the NTIC train will remain mired in a state of underdevelopment. Observations Background Before 1990, as in most African countries, telecommunication services were managed by a national publicly-owned monopoly. The administration in charge of telecommunications set the rules, ensured they were applied and was itself an operator. The results did not always live up to expectations. In June 1990, the President of the Republic signed the order on the programme to privatize public and semi-public enterprises. The telecommunication sector was added to the programme in June 1995. In July 1998, law 98/014 governing telecommunications in Cameroon (the Telecommunications Act) was promulgated. It established the Telecommunication Regulatory Agency and attributed sector responsibilities to a variety of players: the operation of  telecommunication networks to operators, regulatory matters, i.e. application of the rules and supervision of operators, to a regulatory body, the definition of sector policy and the enactment of market regulations to the telecommunication administration. In September of the same year, two public enterprises, CAMTEL for the fixed telephone service and CAMTEL MOBILE for the mobile telephone service, were set up to take over the telecommunication activities of the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications and of the public enterprise INTELCAM, which was in charge of operating and developing international telecommunication installations. The Telecommunication Regulatory Agency was set up at the  same time. Immediately after, the sale of a mobile telephone licence and the process of privatizing CAMTEL and CAMTEL MOBILE got under way. In June 1999, a mobile telephone licence was granted to a private enterprise. The privatization of CAMTEL MOBILE was completed in February 2000. The privatization of CAMTEL is not yet complete. A third mobile telephone licence is to be issued. In less than two years, the sector has undergone sweeping change. Suffice it to mention one indicator: in January 2000 there was one mobile telephone operator with about 5 000 subscribers; on 31 March 2001 there were two operators with over 140 000 subscribers. This rapid and in-depth transformation is taking place within a constantly improving legal framework. II A liberal legal framework The development of new technologies and liberalization have permitted access to new telecommunication services which, depending on their specific natures, require appropriate regulation. The Telecommunications Act sets forth a new regulatory framework, opening the telecommunication sector to competition. The framework, which distinguishes between public and private networks, provides for three legal arrangements: concessions, authorizations  and declarations. 1 Concessions The State can grant one or several public or private corporate bodies all or part of its rights to establish and/or operate telecommunication networks. The concession is subject to strict compliance with the requirements set forth in a list of terms and conditions. This arrangement allows the State not only to keep a watchful eye on the harmonious development of modern telecommunication infrastructure, but also and above all to heighten its control over the development and supply of the basic services and facilities us ually demanded by the majority of users. 2 Authorizations The arrangement of prior authorization applies to the establishment and/or operation of telecommunication networks by physical persons or corporate bodies with a view to providing the public with a basic telecommunication service, a value-added service, a bearer service or any other service by using one or several radio frequencies. A list of terms and conditions containing the requirements to be met is attached to the licence issued to the bearer of a prior authorization. The authorization is issued for a fixed period and can be withdrawn under certain circumstances. 3 Declarations Declarations apply to the establishment of private internal networks, low-range and low-capacity private independent networks (that are not radio networks), low-range and low-capacity radio installations (to be determined  by the Administration), and the provision to the public of telecommunication services other than those subject to the arrangements of concession and authorization. Telecommunication terminal equipment is either freely provided or subject to type-approval. Certain provisions of the Telecommunications Act are detailed in decrees and implementing legislation. We shall not examine all of them here; indeed, some of them are still being drafted. The reform in Cameroon established the separation between the regulatory and operating functions. It works in favour of operators being entities controlled by private capital. The general framework for competition is governed by legislation on competition. The legal framework is supplemented by institutions. III 1 A revised institutional framework The telecommunication administration Spectrum management and the legislation and regulations relating to telecommunications are the exclusive domain of the State. The telecommunication administration has been invested, on behalf of the government, with general jurisdiction over the sector. It sets the general regulatory framework. It therefore establishes and implements telecommunication sector policy, whose aim must be to safeguard the missions of public service, to promote harmonious network development throughout the national territory and effective private sector participation in the sectors wealth and employment-generating activities, and to ensure compliance by all operators with the applicable treaties, laws and regulations. In addition, the administration supervises the telecommunication sector, oversees public telecommunication enterprises, represents the State at international telecommunication-related organizations and events, and manages the radio spectrum on behalf of the State. The Telecommunication Regulatory Agency, which technically answers to the telecommunication administration, is the specialized body in charge of  facilitating actual application of the regulations issued. 2 The Telecommunication Regulatory Agency The organization of the Telecommunication Regulatory Agency established by the Telecommunications Act is set forth in decree No. 98/197 of 8 September 1998. The Agency has three main duties: – to ensure the regulations are implemented; – to guarantee respect for the regulations and the exercise of competition; – to settle certain disputes between operators. The Agencys regulatory authority is subject to performance of the following activities: – definition of the principles governing tariffs for services; – examination of requests for authorization and declaration and of type-approval files for terminal equipment to be connected to public networks; – establishment of principles for calculating interconnection costs; – establishment and management of numbering plans; – management of the frequencies attributed to telecommunications; – submission to the government of proposals aimed at developing and modernizing the sector; – opinions on draft legislative and regulatory texts concerning telecommunications; – control and penalties for infractions. The Agency is specifically competent to settle disputes concerning interconnection, access to a public network, numbering, cases of harmful interference, and sharing of infrastructure. The Telecommunications Act provides the Agency with a quasi-judicial body and an arbitration procedure can be set in motion should one or the other of the parties be opposed. The parties remain free to bring their case before the competent court. IV Human resources Human resources are the key to management and progress, for they have knowledge, that rarest of economic commodities in the 21st century. The current transition from a monopoly environment to that of controlled competition has given rise to new demands in terms of basic knowledge and know- how in telecommunication regulation. Telecommunication leaders and staff in Cameroon were still dealing with the transition from analogue to digital when circuit switching was suddenly replaced by packet switching. This recent change has reshaped the concept and definition of telecommunication networks and services. Everything must therefore be done to make sure the human resources acquire the skills they need for their own development and that of companies, which create wealth for the well-being of peoples. The Ecole Nationale Supà ©rieure des Postes et Tà ©là ©communications, an independent facility run by the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications, provides basic instruction in telecommunications and ICT to technicians (technical and operating staff), supervising technicians (operating technicians and supervisors) and senior technical managers (works engineers and operating inspectors). It plans to organize standing professional certification for the staff of public and private enterprises and of the public administrations in charge of telecommunications and ICT. V International cooperation Cameroon has always been present and active in regional and international telecommunication organizations. It is a member of the Administrative Councils of both the African Telecommunication Union (ATU) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). It has had very few bilateral exchanges of experience and information with other African countries. The ineffectiveness of regional (ATU) and subregional organizations (CAPTAC) has precluded the launch at subregional level of cooperation activities aimed at developing telecommunications in Cameroon. At the international level, ITU  has not been closely involved in telecommunication sector reform. In the past eight years, it has provided some technical assistance but otherwise almost no support for telecommunication development projects in Cameroon, possibly because the Area Office in Yaoundà © is not functioning. The capacities of the Area Office in Yaoundà © should be reinforced. Its main duties should be: – To disseminate ITU documents and information in the area. For this, it should have the means required to provide the documentation centres of the main players in each of the areas countries with the documents and books needed to acquire knowledge in telecommunications and ICT, for most of the sectors African managers will have to teach themselves. In this respect, hard as opposed to electronic copies remain invaluable in Africa.

Bribery In International Marketing Marketing Essay

Bribery In International Marketing Marketing Essay Bribery and corruption is a way of life in many countries and these practices affect the way international business is regularly conducted. However, in most of these countries, it is illegal to offer or receive bribes or engage in corrupt practices. Yet these corrupt practices are a part of the culture or normal way of doing businesses. Unless companies conform to such practices, in many cases, international business cannot be transacted. This essay will try to provide discussion about bribery and corruption in international trade, with examples from very different point of view in according to the principal ethical system, despite whatever religious, realistic and nature. Analyses of the case of Siemens bribery scandal related to ethical issues will be investigated. Bribery is an important issue of concern for many companies. Confrontation of bribery vary across many countries, but everyone has a different concept about it, such as in Hong Kong and Greece, here, managers are less critical of bribery in certain situations than that of the Americas. Paying bribery carries with it a great risk to damaging the companys standing with the country which the briberies are paid, and at home too. Moreover, there is also the risk that the commercial culture of the company will become more open-minded of several of other practices at the legal issues. There is also evidence to suggest that those countries with the reputation for bribery and corruption damage themselves, as it reflects in their economic growth, has a low rates for high level of corruption, like that of Nigeria. It is true to say that bribery in international markets can lead to astonishment, bewilderment and misunderstanding for expatriates, at both organisational and personal levels. This essay examines bribery from two viewpoints and tries to develop procedures to bridge them. The first viewpoint is relativist, accepting that different cultures have different ethical values and not imposing an expatriates values onto another culture. The second viewpoint is universalist, averring that ethics apply anywhere in the world, and is based on psychological and economic grounds. To resolve these two approaches, it is suggested that trying to understand the cultural forces that determine home and overseas attitudes to the many forms of bribery, this is a first step to adjustment. The next step is the development of a global or regional code of conduct that allows flexibility within a gray zone. The result could be an evolving code that adapts to the many dimensions of bribery for each countrys situation, in a manner that is a negotiation between the cultural, psychological and economic values of an expatriates organisation and of local officials. Introduction International marketing is complex as foreign environments are different from home environments, as they differ on physical, cultural, legalpolitical, economic, competitive and distributive dimensions (Ball and McCulloch 1996). Due to these environments, marketers can adapt parts of the marketing mix for each overseas country or region (Hoang 1997), for example, a company might alter its packaging, distribution channels and advertisements in each of its international markets. These marketing mix issues are not the only ones facing international marketers. Cultural management issues are important too, and bribery is the most important of these, at least for Australian and US marketing managers (Armstrong et al. 1990). For example, should a firm pay a customs official to process a shipment through normal channels? Should a firm pay education expenses in its home country for the child of a prince in an overseas country that the firm wants to enter? Should payments to distributors be paid into two separate accounts when one is apparently illegal? Should funds in the public relations budget be paid to someone who appears to do nothing for public relations other than being related to someone in power? Issues like these are important to someone from a culture where these activities are unusual. 1937 Nevertheless, little research has been done on the ethics of international marketing (Armstrong and Sweeney 1994), and interest in ethical issues in general has been mainly empirical (Donaldson 1989). Moreover, levels of corruption vary widely around the world, as seen in a survey of 52 countries by Transparency International (1997). Furthermore, the issue of bribery in particular is often considered within only one of the six different environments above, and bribery is sometimes discussed in the legal environment chapter of a textbook for example, Keegan and Green 1997), where the effect of the United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) on that countrys ability to compete with Europe in international markets is covered (Graham 1984). Alternatively, bribery is sometimes in the public relations part of a textbook (Phillips Doole and Lowe 1994), where it is discussed along with concern about corporate citizenship and employee safety. In addition to this, bribery can be treated as a separate, ethical issue, usually based on cultural issues (Donaldson 1996). However, the aim of this essay is to consider bribery from across several environments such as legal, cultural, economic and competitive, in order to develop a managerial approach to the issue. Contribution is an integrated and up-to-date review of these several viewpoints in a form that international marketing managers might find useful. As well as, the review is from a non-US view, while several other papers have a US view that is different from other developed countries (Donaldson 1996; Mayo 1992; Across the Board 1993). It is concluded that managers can develop a code of conduct for the several dimensions of bribery that bridges the relativist and universalist views. This essay has four main sections. Firstly, bribery in developing countries is looked at from a Western view point that aims toshow the roots of bribery may be common to both. This leads into a cultural, relativist view of bribery, which suggests that bribery is appropriate if it is normal in the culture of an overseas country. However, counter arguments to this relativist view are then presented, including psychological and economic arguments. Finally, facing these two contrasting positions, the essay considers how management could handle bribery. In this essay, bribery is defined broadly: bribery is offering, or promising to pay, anything of value to influence an act or decision by officials in a foreign government, including politicians, a political party or a bureaucrat to assist in obtaining, retaining, or directing business to any person (based on the FCPAs definition). This definition does not cover issues such as human rights or child labor use, sexual harassment or industrial espionage. Our definition of dealing with officials about business matters is the one of major concern to marketing managers in particular. 1938 Four Roots of Bribery From a Western point of view, bribery sometimes appears to be caused merely by the greed of locals, especially poor locals. however bribery has four, more complex roots which appear to exist in both Western and developing countries. Firstly, a bribe can be simply linked to a tip to insure promptness at a restaurant, just as a restaurant kitchen can sometimes have inefficient processes that require human involvement to overcome, so can the bureaucracy of a developing country. Bribes may be seen to be a way of purchasing government services when a government cannot afford to provide salaries that are adequate for the service to be provided free to every person (Tullock 1996). Thus, bribery may be a form of privatisation that makes the wealthy who can afford it, pay for a service. Indeed, the relatively high-principled FCPA that tries to limit the involvement of US firms in bribery, actually permits payments to officials to do their normal duties while disallowing payments to high-level officials for special favors. A prime example is a US business person can bribe a customs officer to expedite an inspection but not to skip it altogether. However, the next three roots of bribery may not be allowed by the FCPA. Secondly, a bribe can be considered to be a normal promotion activity. Such as that of BMW cars are provided free to family members of politicians in Western countries for the spillover effect on the prestige of the car. If the wife of the Premier of Victoria, Australia has free use of a BMW, why cannot officials in overseas countries who are close to real power also be given gifts to help promotion. Similarly, many Western companies provide corporate hospitality at sporting venues such as at the Ascot, Henley and Wimbledon in the name of promotion (Ramsay 1990). Therefore, how is this kind of promotion different from some bribery in developing countries? This leads to the third root of bribery, which is related to the general idea of gifts to show respect and gratitude to a person in a relationship, at certain times. Gift giving is common at Christmas time in Western countries, and gift giving at birthday and holidays may serve the same purpose in overseas countries (Onkvist and Shaw 1997). As interactions between buyers and sellers proceed, a social relationship is developed that can be enriched by gift giving. Social relationships are often characterised by the exchange of gifts and hospitality as trust develops between the parties. In seeking to build relationships of trust, the exchange of gifts may be seen as an entirely appropriate act of social bonding. (Wood 1995, p. 11). This reciprocal gift and favor giving is more important in some Asian countries than in the West, simply because of their cultural values (Hofstede 1991, p. 169). Finally, in food and other markets in developing markets, the occasional expatriate customers are usually asked to pay more than locals because the stallholder knows that his or her usual price is usually a far smaller proportion of the discretionary spending of an expatriate than that of a local. A dual price system 1939 reflects the dual economies that exist in many developing countries and do not exist to the same extent in western countries. That is, a poorly paid overseas official with an extended family living in his small house may consider it reasonable to ask a wealthy foreign business person staying at a five star hotel to pay more than the usual low prices for labor and other services in his or her country. Thus a bribe may be seen to improve equity just as a progressive taxation system aims to do in developed countries. The inequity without bribes in a developing country may be even greater than in a market or a taxation system of a developed country, because the official will have high local power from their immediate and extended family, friends and political party despite having low monetary wealth. In contrast to this , the foreign business person has lower power despite having higher monetary wealth. That is, bribery may not violate the Christian but sometimes be considered to be a universal doctrine of love you neighbor like yourself, but actually affirm it (contra Coady in Way 1996, p. 19). Overall in brief then, bribery is seen to exist and has roots that exist in both a Western and an overseas countries. Cultural View of Bribery Implicit in the discussion above is a relativist, cultural understanding of bribery that what is right or wrong, good or bad, depends on ones culture. However, this argument implies that there are no golden rules underlying most human behavior (Way 1996, p. 19), that is, ones own culture is the major influence on views about bribery. This concept of culture therefore deserves to be explored further. Culture has five dimensions: the relationship between the individual and the collective group, power differentials within society, masculinity and femininity, dealing with uncertainty and Confucian dynamism (Hofstede 1991). Several of these dimensions strongly influence views about bribery. The first dimension of individualism/collectivism would appear to be the most related to bribery (Tanzi 1995; in Onkvist and Shaw 1997, p. 175). Developing countries are more collective than developed countries, that is, officials place greater emphasis on their responsibilities to their own extended families and friends, than do Western business people. However individualism/collectivism is not the only cultural dimension affecting bribery. Developing countries are often high on the second culture dimension of power distance, that is, individual officials with which marketing managers deal have major obligations to their supervisors. Thus, the officials will support a bribery culture if it is related to power as some of the four roots of culture above were shown to be, and especially so if their own superiors accept and foster bribery. In addition to this, some Asian countries are more concerned with 1940 virtuous behavior than the abstract truth (which is related to the dimension of Confucian dynamism). An officials actual behavior toward his or her immediate and extended family, and toward friends and superiors is more important than abstract universal values applying to all humans, to which some Westerners cling (Hofstede 1991). Onkvist and Shaw (1997, p. 175) appropriately sum up this relativist, cultural view of bribery: the concept of arms-length relationships would seem strange and alien. It would even seem immoral. The idea that, economically speaking, one should treat relatives and friends in the same way as strangers would appear bizarre. In brief, a cultural view of bribery initially suggests that expatriate marketing managers should simply fit in with local bribery practices wherever he or she goes. However, the cultural relativism approach to bribery developed above cannot be the basis for a marketing managers approach to bribery, because awareness of cultural differences is only the starting point for international cooperation. That is, a marketing manager cannot completely adapt to a different culture and deal in bribes with no regard for his or her own cultural values, for an appreciation of anothers culture does not mean forgoing ones own culture. Successful intercultural encounters presuppose that the partners believe in their own values. If not, they have become alienated persons, lacking a sense of identity (Hofstede 1991, p. 237). To handle the issue of bribery comprehensively for a real world individuals involved in business, managers need to consider issues other than cultural differences per se, and we turn to these relatively universalist issues next. Economic and Managerial Issues of Bribery Economic advantages of bribery for the receiving official and for the company that receives preferential treatment ahead of its competitors, are obvious. However, there are economic disadvantages for both the taking and the giving country. First, bribery can send incorrect signals about demand price and supply cost in a market economy. More directly, bribery adds to the cost of contracts and goods roughly by five percent in Asia (Kraar 1995), this could perhaps be even more in some instances. Secondly, it distorts the decision-making processes too. When contractors are selected on the basis of what the decision-maker will receive personally rather than the contractors ability to do the best, lowest cost job, then the whole economy suffers misallocation of resources. This form of bribery was perhaps a major influence in the recent meltdown of some Asian currencies. Thirdly, bribery can lead to industrial standards being dropped with social and economic repercussions upon the firm. For example, workers may work in substandard conditions that may impair productivity, people may die in buildings that collapse due to building standards inappropriate, and the environment and firms future may be hurt by over-zealous timber-felling. 1941 Moreover, there are other disadvantages of bribery that are particularly important for the giving country. Firstly, home and foreign customers help pay for uneconomic spending in bribes, often for the enrichment of a few overseas individuals who become more wealthy than ordinary citizens of the giving country. In 1995, bribery cost businesses almost $45 billion worldwide (Kaltnhauser 1996). Secondly, bribery could be used against the giving organisation, in the case of managers returning to the home country and rejoining the salesforce at home could accept bribes for practices that the giving organisation does not want done at home. That is, a relativist position that allows a match between expatriate individuals and the corrupt organisations overseas, may also foster at home the separation of personal and organisational moral standards, with consequences at home that the organisation does not want. In brief then, bribery has economic and social disadvantages that a purely cultural understanding leading to a relativist attitude to it, may hide. How Can Managers Handle Bribery in a Competitive Market? Given the two contrasting views about bribery above, what can managers in a non-US company do to bridge the gap between a relativist and a universalist approach to ethics. The practices and what managers in a US firm do is clear, they obey the FCPA or get around it by channeling funds through an agent who then handles the bribery behind a screen. Some managers might try to offset a competitors bribe with a better, total product You might offer a lower price, a better product, better distribution or better advertising to offset the benefit of the bribe to the decision influencer (Keegan 1989, p. 201). This US position is an idealist position that many non-US managers may not adopt, for it assumes that the better, total product will win the contract, when in fact, bribery occurs to oftentimes successfully ensure that it does not. Moreover, competing firms from European countries and Australia are allowed to treat bribes as a tax-deductible business expense, reducing the after-tax effect of the bribe. In April 1996, the OECD passed a resolution saying bribes should not be taxdeductible and in 1993, Transparency International, a not-for-profit organisation with chapters in 40 countries, tried to increase awareness of briberys existence, but anti-foreign bribery legislation outside the United States does not yet exist. Moreover, one is never sure of the level of bribes that competitors are offering for a project, and so deciding on how much to improve the total product to fight bribery is difficult. In addition, bribery is sometimes paid for day-to-day operations as well as a project, and so discussion of a better, total product may be of limited usefulness. For instance, if bribes are not paid by an individual firm, it may experience bureaucratic delays on wharves and in warehouses and its goods may 1942 be stolen, while its bribe-paying competitors do not experience these costly problems. In brief, curbing bribery from an idealistic position may be quixotic until the United Nations or a similar organisation arranges for a multinational, legal approach to it. Given the present, imperfect world within which companies operate, some more options to handle bribery are available. One option is to choose to internationalise into the less-corrupt countries. Clear examples of corrupt countries are China, Indonesia and India, which are rated among the most corrupt countries to do business in the world after Russia; indeed, corruption in Indonesiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is almost a way of life. Only Singapore is more squeaky-clean than most Western countries (Hard graft in Asia 1995, p. 61). Organisation code of ethics. There is another option to approaching the ethical gaps in international marketing. Firstly, within the home firm, managers could develop an organisation code of ethics for any non-home country within which it operates, or maybe for a particular region of many countries. For all these countries, this code would outline the degree of standardisation and adaptation in each of eight or so dimensions of bribery, such as expediting bureaucratic processes, promotion, corporate hospitality, gifts, dual prices, wage rates, occupational health and safety standards, and lobbying to influence government policies. The code would take into consideration the cultural, legal-political, economic, competitive and distributive environments of each foreign market and the home organisation. For instance, it might specify when bribes appear on an invoice and when they may not (adapted Cadbury 1987). Moreover, acknowledging the greatest differences between an expatriates and his or her home organizations ethical systems, and the local environments ethical standards, this code might specify when some purchases or tenders are outsourced away from the organisation to a local agent. familiarisation tour of the home organisation would help home country managers appreciate overseas operations, and helping with scholarships to home country universities would foster long-term links when the students return. Of course, managers need to know relevant national and international laws or hire reputable lawyers who know local laws and customs. Although local legal and judicial systems can be underdeveloped, flawed and flouted (for example, with bribes), a firm may have in its global code that local laws will always be observed, even if the risks involved in flouting them, even though competitors may be prepared to take the risks. Finally, to help implementation of the code, the organisation could institute and code of ethics sensitisation training before managers enter an overseas country and when they return, based on cross-cultural sensitisation sessions like those discussed in Hofstede (1991, p. 232). Ethics audits could also be carried out, emphasising improvement and learning about the processes used, such as TQM continual improvement programs do. Furthermore, these audits would foster an evolving awareness of ethical considerations for each of the eight dimensions in a particular organisation, and in a particular country. Conclusion Evidence suggests that bribery is a fact of life in international marketing that can lead to astonishment, bewilderment and misunderstanding for expatriates at both organisational and personal levels. Two viewpoints about bribery were examined. The first viewpoint was relativist, accepting that bribery has the same roots in Western and other countries and so different ethical systems may be simply the result of different cultural values. In contrast, the second, universalist viewpoint is that a set of ethical values applies anywhere in the world, based on psychological and economic grounds. To bridge these two views, it is strongly suggested to try to understand the cultural forces that determine home and overseas attitudes to the many forms of bribery, which will indeed be a first step to adjustment. The next step is to develop a global or regional code of conduct that allows flexibility within a gray zone for some situations in particular countries, based on win-win adjustments. The result could be an evolving code of conduct that adapts to the many dimensions of bribery for each countrys situation, in a manner that is a negotiation between the cultural, psychological and economic values of an expatriates organisation and of local officials. 1945

The Letters In Pride And Prejudice

The Letters In Pride And Prejudice To reveal how useful the letters are in Pride and Prejudice, we need to look at the history behind letter writing. Jane Austens novel, Pride and Prejudice was written in 1813. The main form of communication then was by letters. However, they did not have a Central Postal system that we have today, where if you want to send a letter or parcel urgently then it could arrive within a few hours, instead they had their mail sent by Mail Coach. Although, you could send the mail by express, which was where you would pay an extra amount of money to have your mail sent faster, for example Mr Gardiners letter in chapter 44 was sent by express. There were no separate envelopes so letters were folded and the address would be written on the back, often they would seal it using wax. If the letter was private then the writer may have made an envelope which would be made from simply folding paper. In chapter 35 Darcy makes an envelope for his letter to Elizabeth because it is so long. Paper would have been extremely expensive in Jane Austens time, so to save paper the writer would write in the margins making sure they used up every space upon the paper. The letters would have been written using a pen made from a quill feather, which would have been sharpened to a point and dipped in ink. The lost original first version of Pride and Prejudice was written in epistolary form and was called, First Impressions. Other eighteenth century authors wrote in this form. A twentieth century novel also written in epistolary form is, The Color Purple, Alice Walker. In total there are 40 letters either paraphrased or directly quoted in the novel Pride and Prejudice. Letters are useful because they give secrecy between two characters allowing for complete privacy. They allow the characters to express feelings they can never convey aloud, they have time to think. Letters allow one to reveal their thoughts more personally and intimately than they can in person. Staring at a blank page of paper is definitely less intimidating than looking into someones eyes. Letters allow you to communicate without travelling yourself. They are good for the use of invitations. Communication is such an important vitality, and letter-writing lacks the loss of words, stuttering, awkward silences, and uneasiness that conversations can sometimes carry. You can read a letter over and over again each time gaining a better understanding. In Chapter 36 Elizabeth reads the letter from Darcy intently it quotes, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ commanded herself so for as to examine the meaning of every sentence., she read and re-read with the closest attention., Again she read onà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. They show that you can study a letter and read beyond the surface. As a reader a letter makes you feel as if you are prying. It gives you a quick coverage so you know what is happening in the novel. They are used to catch up with reasons of behaviour which advances the plot. From using letters it shows Janes ability to provide a variety and also break up the narrative at the same time. From the letters in the novel you can learn about the character of the writer and also the characteristics are revealed without being said bluntly. In the novel Pride and Prejudice, letter-writing is almost as much a form of communication as face-to-face conversation. In fact, letters provide some of the most intense and important climaxes in the story, not to mention some of the most intense secrets. This method that Austen uses effectively conveys the situation without any interruption or delay. The most obvious example of a letter revealing intimate feelings is Darcys letter in chapter 35.The content is informing her of the truth about Wickham. Darcy writes this letter to Elizabeth to apologise and explain for his behaviour. He writes it in a letter because he does not know whether he should reveal the truth to her. He writes You may possibly wonder why all this was not told you last night; but I was not then master enough of myself to know what could or ought to be revealed. He decides to confide in her. He says I write without any intention of paining youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ This reveals that his character is not as arrogant as you are made to think about him and that he is considerate and sensitive which is everything Elizabeth needs to be reading at this time. He is focussed by sticking to the point and uses an anxious but calm tone. His letter is in detail and in great length. He uses a widened vocabulary and his style is varied. He is original and open-hearted. His letter shows that he is an educated writer. This explanation to Elizabeth is a crucial piece of text because it alters the way she thinks and her feelings towards Darcy and Wickham, Her feelings as she read were scarcely to be defined. Until he writes this letter, Darcy does not show his true emotions and feelings towards people. The letter is useful to Darcy because it lets him express his feelings that have been locked up inside him. He trusts Elizabeth enough to confide in her. A complete opposite of Darcy is Mr Collins. There are many distinctive differences between them. In chapter 13 Mr Collins writes to Mr Bennet to invite himself over to Longbourn. He writes the letter so he can meet the daughters and hopefully marry one, which will make him feel better about his inheritance. It is seen as being extremely rude inviting himself, but he assumes it will be acceptable. He writes a brief and formal letter in a pompous tone to reinforce gossip. He uses words such as: honoured, pleased and grateful to grovel and show his respect, especially towards Lady Catherine de Bourgh who he thinks the world of and boasts about knowing. He thinks he is really important by boasting about his position of the Church of England, he says, As a clergyman, moreover, I feel it my duty toà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This is an example of him flattering himself. He uses a good range of vocabulary to boast of his intellect. He is shown as being patronising towards the Bennets by saying and tha t the circumstance of my being next in the entail of Longbournà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ He likes to remind them that he will inherit their home which will make the Bennets annoyed. His letter is rushed I know this from the way he wanders around the point and does not stay focussed. From this letter it reveals that Mr Collins is already being recognised as a buffoon. Mr Collins and Lydia have similar traits. In chapter 47 Lydia writes to her friend Harriet to inform her that she is planning to secretly disappear to Gretna Green and elope with Wickham. She writes to brag, to send her apologies to Pratt for not being able to dance with him and also to ask Sally to mend a great slit in her worked muslin gown. Lydias letter does not take the plot further or introduce any new storylines. It is a very short and informal letter that is disorganised. All of the information is at random; this is proof that it has been rushed. Lydia shows no respect for the reader, she says, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦if you cannot guess who with, I shall think you a simpleton, She is also inconsiderate towards her family, she writes, You need not send them word at Longbourn of my going,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, for it will make the surprise the greater, when I write to them and sign my name Lydia Wickham. From writing this it shows Lydia to have no concern for possible consequ ences and that she is self-centred. She uses short sentences and a giddy tone, she writes, What a good joke it will be! She does not take anything seriously; everything is a big joke to her. She writes carelessly and with simple vocabulary which suggests her naivetà © and silliness. Lydias letter gets across her character as being selfish, immature, unsophisticated and definitely inconsiderate. One may think that sisters would share the same characteristics but Janes letters in chapter 46 proves that she is nothing like Lydia. Janes letters are to Elizabeth and are about Lydias unexpected elopement with Wickham to Gretna Green. Jane wrote these letters to Elizabeth to inform her of the event and to urge her to return home. Janes letters are long and detailed and are written in a more mature tone than Lydias. They are written in a formal manner. She is also informative and uses a variety of sentence lengths. She uses words such as imprudent and exigence which show her use of a more complex vocabulary. She also uses more complex sentences and a good use of commas and semi-colons for example, I am truly glad, dearest Lizzy, that you have been spared something of these distressing scenes; but now, as the first shock is over, shall I own that u long for your return? Even though she is very distressed and concerned she manages to stay pleasant towards Wickham, she says,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.I am willing to hope the best, and that his character has been misunderstood., and, My father and mother believe the worst, but I cannot think so ill of him. She is still kind even in thoughts. She uses a comforting tone towards Elizabeth because she knows that she will be distraught by the news, she writes, I am very, very sorry., and My dear Lizzyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ She is being sympathetic and a true sister! Jane uses abbreviations for places and names that she knows Lizzy will understand, these are, Mrs F. , W. and Colonel F. The letters reveal that Janes character is comforting, kind-hearted and considerate. I have learned that in Pride and Prejudice the letters are very useful because they move the plot along and introduce new storylines. They give secrecy between two characters and allow them to express their true feelings. The characters will find it much easier to reveal their thoughts more intimately in a letter then saying it in person. Most importantly they allow us to see what the letter reveals about the writers character and give us a better understanding for their actions and behaviour. By Alana Holmes

John Calhoun :: essays research papers

A boy of Scotch-Irish descent, whose ancestors had settled in Pennsylvania before travelling through mountains to resettle in southern territory, he was born in 1782 in the Abbeville district of South Carolina on March 18. His family was not rich, nor were they poor; they owned slaves and were regarded not as a part of the ostentation associated with slave-holding at the time but rather as a simple, farm family. His father had an interest in politics and participated locally, something that ultimately catapulted this boy into his future profession. Sent at the age of 12 to live with a Presbyterian minister for a basic education, he was eventually trained at Yale beginning his junior year and graduated with "distinction," a prerequisite to the next few years in which he would study law in Charlestown. In 1807 he became a certified lawyer and began practice in his home district of Abbeville. Thereafter, he entered politics: 1808, 1809 he was a member of the S.C. legislature; 1811 to 1817 he was a House Representative of his state. In 1811, the year he began in Congress, he married a rich cousin whose assets included vast plantations and large populations of black slaves. This marriage marked his entrance into the Charlestown southern elite, a position that would act to catalyst his pro-slavery sentiments for which he is now renown. Amicable relations developed between this person, and Clay when he entered Congress; Clay placed him on his foreign affairs committee because, like Clay, he advocated war with England. The two are considered the most powerful members of Congress who pushed these measures toward war at this time; the House eventually accepted their arguments. As a politician, he advocated protection of American markets when European competition was at its best, internal improvements, though he strongly opposed nationalism and would later champion both the rise of sectionalism and slavery. In 1817, he was appointed Secretary of War to Monroe; in 1824 and again in 1828, he was the vice-president of the U.S, but in 1832 resigned over a controversy concerning nullification. He switched gears, and gained a seat in the Senate where he was a constant advocate of "State’s Rights" to slave-holding southern states that banked on the perpetuation of their tradition. He attempted to gain the presidency at least three times, each ending in defeat and a mysterious "Slavery is, instead of an evil, a good, a positive good," he said.

Parents + Teachers = Conflicts :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As we are introduced to the four key beliefs that form the framework for the MIT program here at City University, (Preparation, Practice, People, and Professionalism) I have chosen to focus first on People, since people are at the core of what we are seeking to become. Obviously there are areas of overlap in the four; like professionalism is going to include preparation, but people are at the heart of it; teachers, parents, children, and administrators working together for the common goal of education.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unfortunately even though the goal is the same, what route to take in order to achieve that goal is sometime a contentious one. Laws are passed. Curriculums are made with the general population in mind, but not the individual. Teachers have to work with their entire class at the same time. The parent however is often focused on only one thing, the education of their child and that can lead to problems   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In â€Å"Parents Behaving Badly† by Nancy Gibb (Time, 2005,135,40-49), the author examines how well meaning parents can hinder the educational process by doing things that perhaps are well intentioned, but are quite possibly not for the greater good.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  She sites from a 2004 MetLife survey, (Gibb, 2005, p.44) that 90% of new teachers agree that involving parents in their children’s education is a priority, however only 25% described their experience working with parents as â€Å"very satisfying†. In fact 31% of the teachers cited involving and communicating with parents as the biggest challenge they face. The vast majority of teachers in the survey felt too many parents treat schools and teachers as adversaries.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parental induced problems included, but were certainly not limited to: parents doing their children’s homework, blaming teachers for their child’s mistakes, demanding that grades be changed, demanding daily updates on their child’s progress, restricting teacher’s speech (in the context of Parents + Teachers = Conflicts  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3 what can be said to their child), lawsuits, verbally abusing teachers, and at the other end of the spectrum parents that are completely uninvolved. â€Å"While it’s the nature of parents to want to smooth out the bumps in the road, it’s the nature of teachers to toss in a few more: sometimes kids have to fail in order to learn.† (Gibbs, 2005, p.44)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Research show that students benefit modestly from having parents involved at school†¦but what happens at home matters much more.†, (Gibbs, 2005, p.44). She calls on studies that demonstrate a partnership is required to achieve the best results.

PSY 301, Introductory Psychology, Fall 2005, Exam 4 A :: UTEXAS Texas Psychology

Form A Name: __________________________ Date: _____________ Introductory Psychology, Fall 2005 (Hawkins) Exam 4 Instructions: Write your name and the date on the top of this exam. Your must turn in this exam along with your answer sheet. On the answer sheet, print your EID, blacken the letters of your EID and provide the other information requested. (Don't forget to put which form of the exam you took!) Remember to blacken your choice for each item on the answer sheet (A, B, C, or D) and completely erase your questions. Good luck! 1. The discovery that psychologically disordered behavior could result from syphilis infections facilitated the credibility and acceptance of: A) trait theory. B) psychoanalytic theory. C) the medical model. D) DSM-IV. E) the social-cognitive perspective. 2. Electroconvulsive therapy has proven to be effective in the treatment of: A) phobias. B) dissociative disorders. C) schizophrenia. D) depression. 3. Dr. Genscher believes that most psychological disorders result from chemical abnormalities. In her work as a therapist, Dr. Genscher is most likely to make use of: A) psychosurgery. B) EMDR. C) systematic desensitization. D) drug therapies. E) transference. 4. Psychotherapy is likely to be most effective when a client's problem is: A) clear-cut. B) the result of unconscious conflicts. C) long-standing and habitual. D) a response to a stressful life situation. E) self-inflicted. 5. Attitudes are ________ that guide behavior. A) norms and roles B) superordinate goals C) beliefs and feelings D) dispositional attributions 6. Which form of therapy is most likely to emphasize the importance of examining a person's role within a social system? A) systematic desensitization B) cognitive therapy C) psychoanalysis D) family therapy E) client-centered therapy 7. Expert pool players were observed to make 71 percent of their shots when alone. When four people watched them, they made 80 percent of their shots. This best illustrates: A) the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. B) social facilitation. C) group polarization. D) the bystander effect. E) the mere exposure effect. 8. Ksana insists that her boyfriend's car accident resulted from his carelessness. Her explanation for the accident provides an example of: A) the bystander effect. B) deindividuation. C) ingroup bias. D) the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. E) a dispositional attribution. 9. Which form of therapy has most directly contributed to the sharp reduction in the number of residents in U.S. mental hospitals? A) psychosurgery B) cognitive therapy C) electroconvulsive therapy D) drug therapy E) behavior therapy 10. The bystander effect refers to the tendency for an observer of an emergency to withhold aid if the: A) emergency takes place in a large city. B) observer has just endured a frustrating experience. C) emergency victim is a member of a different racial group than the observer.

Life Span Perspective Paper

Life Span Perspective Paper Life span is the time of conception till the day a person takes their last breathe. So many situations take place in a person’s life like reaching other developmental periods within life. A child grows from an infant and becomes of age to go to school for the first time or simply graduating from high school and entering the next phase of life when responsibility becomes everything. Each phase of life means that a person is developing whether they are transitioning from a young adult to being a middle aged adult there are developmental stages that take place until the final transition which is death.In order to better understand human development the process of studying takes place which in turn means moving from one stage to the next within a lifespan. Through the years observation, predictions and evolving technologies have opened up doors to the way individuals develop and reach stages by pinpointing differences and predictions that prove to be in accurate or simply that have not risen to the occasion over the years of change. There are considered to be five characteristics of development; multidirectional, multicontextual, multicultural, multidisciplinary and plasticity.Multidirectional is the study of change within human development. Multicontextual is dealing with contexts such as an individual’s surroundings or environment that can affect development. Multicultural is when individuals do not notice cultural differences because they have become so used to their own surroundings. Multidisciplinary which pertains to multiple academic fields which all deliver the same insight as to how data and insight are contributed. Plasticity is when change occurs sometime during the lifespan of an individual. A person could be fine and then experience the lost of a parent and become altered forever.These five characteristics all intertwine with one another in order to explain in detail how people transition and develop through mul ti stages within life. There are also three domains of human development; biosocial development, cognitive development and psychosocial development. (Boyd and Bee, 2006). Two theories of lifespan development are grand theories and emergent theories. Grand theories are a combination of behaviorism, cognitive theory and psychoanalytic theory which refer to child development through comprehensive theories of psychology in a detailed manner.Emergent theories are not as detailed but it does incorporate the interpretations of development but touches on preconceived comprehensive and systematic instances. Behaviorism studies observable behavior and is sometimes referred to as the learning theory because behavior is learned in a number of ways. Cognitive theory focuses on how the thought process develops and is ultimately configured. Psychoanalytic theory is when a child has inner drives and motives such as obtaining the cookie from the cookie jar after their parent has told them not until after dinner. Boyd and Bee, 2006). Heredity is when your skin tone or height is passed down through the generations within a family. Your genes and DNA that make you who you are as far as features and sometimes personality and reactions to a situation. Environment is where a person lives, is raised or chooses to reside. A person can come from a family that has never been to college but allows a positive environment to flourish newer ways of learning to achieve a major goal within their life.No one can change their DNA or even their genes but allowing positive versus negative environments to influence their future thought process can really provide a lot of good. On the other hand a person can have the makeup of having an addictive personality that can ultimately be very negative outcome as a person that has two alcoholic parents and paternal and maternal grandparents that have issues with drugs and alcohol. If the individual takes a drink of alcohol and the addictive traits get wake n up then the individual could really cause harm to themselves by subduing to alcohol and drugs.An environment can truly have an effect on the development of an individual. A person can be raised in a tense environment and exude a negative temperament as a result of being in non nurturing situation. In conclusion everyone in the world has reached some stage within the lifespan developmental stage and in order for these stages to have been identified research, observation and scientific experiments have taken place. There is such a wide array of characteristics of development that pinpoint the differences that are faced within the entire life of an individual.Grand theories are three incorporated theories that are detailed and well observed in order to showcase development of the years as everyone is very different. Emergent theories are theories that are not detailed and can change at any given moment because they are predicted theories that might not be proven to be true. Heredity and environment play such pivotal roles in development because people mimic behaviors and influences that are around them whether negative or positive. ? Reference Boyd, D. , & Bee, H. (2006). Lifespan Development (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Life Span Perspective Paper Life Span Perspective Paper Life span is the time of conception till the day a person takes their last breathe. So many situations take place in a person’s life like reaching other developmental periods within life. A child grows from an infant and becomes of age to go to school for the first time or simply graduating from high school and entering the next phase of life when responsibility becomes everything. Each phase of life means that a person is developing whether they are transitioning from a young adult to being a middle aged adult there are developmental stages that take place until the final transition which is death.In order to better understand human development the process of studying takes place which in turn means moving from one stage to the next within a lifespan. Through the years observation, predictions and evolving technologies have opened up doors to the way individuals develop and reach stages by pinpointing differences and predictions that prove to be in accurate or simply that have not risen to the occasion over the years of change. There are considered to be five characteristics of development; multidirectional, multicontextual, multicultural, multidisciplinary and plasticity.Multidirectional is the study of change within human development. Multicontextual is dealing with contexts such as an individual’s surroundings or environment that can affect development. Multicultural is when individuals do not notice cultural differences because they have become so used to their own surroundings. Multidisciplinary which pertains to multiple academic fields which all deliver the same insight as to how data and insight are contributed. Plasticity is when change occurs sometime during the lifespan of an individual. A person could be fine and then experience the lost of a parent and become altered forever.These five characteristics all intertwine with one another in order to explain in detail how people transition and develop through mul ti stages within life. There are also three domains of human development; biosocial development, cognitive development and psychosocial development. (Boyd and Bee, 2006). Two theories of lifespan development are grand theories and emergent theories. Grand theories are a combination of behaviorism, cognitive theory and psychoanalytic theory which refer to child development through comprehensive theories of psychology in a detailed manner.Emergent theories are not as detailed but it does incorporate the interpretations of development but touches on preconceived comprehensive and systematic instances. Behaviorism studies observable behavior and is sometimes referred to as the learning theory because behavior is learned in a number of ways. Cognitive theory focuses on how the thought process develops and is ultimately configured. Psychoanalytic theory is when a child has inner drives and motives such as obtaining the cookie from the cookie jar after their parent has told them not until after dinner. Boyd and Bee, 2006). Heredity is when your skin tone or height is passed down through the generations within a family. Your genes and DNA that make you who you are as far as features and sometimes personality and reactions to a situation. Environment is where a person lives, is raised or chooses to reside. A person can come from a family that has never been to college but allows a positive environment to flourish newer ways of learning to achieve a major goal within their life.No one can change their DNA or even their genes but allowing positive versus negative environments to influence their future thought process can really provide a lot of good. On the other hand a person can have the makeup of having an addictive personality that can ultimately be very negative outcome as a person that has two alcoholic parents and paternal and maternal grandparents that have issues with drugs and alcohol. If the individual takes a drink of alcohol and the addictive traits get wake n up then the individual could really cause harm to themselves by subduing to alcohol and drugs.An environment can truly have an effect on the development of an individual. A person can be raised in a tense environment and exude a negative temperament as a result of being in non nurturing situation. In conclusion everyone in the world has reached some stage within the lifespan developmental stage and in order for these stages to have been identified research, observation and scientific experiments have taken place. There is such a wide array of characteristics of development that pinpoint the differences that are faced within the entire life of an individual.Grand theories are three incorporated theories that are detailed and well observed in order to showcase development of the years as everyone is very different. Emergent theories are theories that are not detailed and can change at any given moment because they are predicted theories that might not be proven to be true. Heredity and environment play such pivotal roles in development because people mimic behaviors and influences that are around them whether negative or positive. ? Reference Boyd, D. , & Bee, H. (2006). Lifespan Development (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Considerations of Communication Style Essay

Communication style has a very big impact on the dynamics of face-to-face encounters, that is, whether a conversation proceeds smoothly or by fits and starts, whether both continually interrupt each other or are both able to talk simultaneously without interrupting and whether their style of listening match. Differences in ethnic background coupled with those of communication style probably increase chances that implicit unverbalized matters will be overlooked or misinterpreted. To be able to understand deeper and more sophisticated effects of style differences can take years. In exploring such differences of â€Å"the other†, one cannot help but come to understand the cultural factors that have shaped one’s own style. In the communication between Japanese and Non-Japanese there are intercultural communication blocks that have to be considered, which are, problems on direct and indirectness, individuality and groups view, decision making, and discussion. Components of Communication Style  According to some experts there are various things included in the components of communication style, such as: topics of discussions, favorite interaction forms -ritual, repartee, argument, and self disclosure- and involvement depth, as well as the channel people rely upon (Dean Barlund) ; behaviors –gesticulation, eye contact, speech and kinetic rhythm, and listening behavior- (Erickson) ; interruptions, pauses, laughter, inductive and deductive statements, and types of question ( E. S Johnson). However, in this discussion, there are three variables suggested as a core to explore communication style: (1) orientation to interaction, (2) code preference, and (3) interaction format. These are not to be understood as stereotype descriptions of all members of any cultural group but rather as stylistic preferences of the cultural group as a whole. Communication style orientations are anchored in cultural standards but allow for individual movement depending upon the situation and cultural constraints.